Scriptures & sacred texts

Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan's Malayalam Ramayana in the "parrot song" form, read in Kerala homes through the month of Karkidakam.

Texts of the Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta traditions that govern temple building, consecration of images, daily worship and festivals in many Indian temples.

An encyclopaedic Purana, told by Agni to the sage Vasishtha, covering ritual, temple building, image-making, medicine, grammar, poetics and statecraft.

A Rigvedic Upanishad on creation and consciousness, containing the great saying "Prajnanam brahma": consciousness is Brahman.

The Telugu Mahabharata, composed over three centuries by the Kavitrayam ("trinity of poets"): Nannaya, Tikkana and Errana.

An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economics, law and diplomacy, traditionally attributed to Kautilya (Chanakya). It was rediscovered in a palm-leaf manuscript in the early 20th century.

The fourth Veda, with hymns and prayers for health, long life, protection, marriage, farming and the well-being of the community.

The sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, including the Gathas, hymns traditionally ascribed to the prophet Zarathushtra. Parsi priests in India have preserved them for centuries.

Krishna's teaching to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra: 700 verses on duty, selfless action, devotion and knowledge, and one of the most widely read texts in the world.

The most loved Purana of Krishna devotion, told by the sage Shuka to King Parikshit. Its tenth book on Krishna's life inspired bhakti movements across India.

The Purana "of the future", with sections on vows, festivals and Sun worship. Scholars note that it has been added to over many centuries.

The sacred collection of Kabir's verses for the Kabirpanth, full of sharp, simple sayings on one God beyond temple and mosque.

Placed first among the Mahapuranas and also called the Adi Purana. Much of it praises sacred places, especially in Odisha and along the Godavari.

Concise aphorisms that bring together the teachings of the Upanishads. Every school of Vedanta is built on a commentary on them.

The Purana of the cosmic egg (brahmanda). It contains the Lalita Sahasranama, and the Adhyatma Ramayana is traditionally regarded as part of it.

A Purana in which Krishna is the supreme being and Radha his divine energy. It also honours goddesses and Ganesha.

The "great forest" Upanishad, the longest of the principal Upanishads, with the debates of Yajnavalkya and the prayer "Asato ma sadgamaya".

One of the largest and oldest Upanishads, where the sage Uddalaka teaches his son Shvetaketu: "Tat tvam asi", you are that.

A collection of compositions attributed to Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru, several of which are part of daily Sikh prayers.

The great Purana of the Goddess, in which Devi is the supreme reality. Shakta tradition counts it among the Mahapuranas; other lists treat it as an Upapurana.

A short, much-loved collection of 423 verses of the Buddha on the mind, ethics and the path to freedom.

Early prose manuals on dharma, law and conduct, attached to Vedic schools. The best known are those of Apastamba, Gautama, Baudhayana and Vasishtha.

A Vaishnava Purana told by Vishnu to Garuda. Its section on death and the afterlife is read in many homes during the days of mourning.

Jayadeva's 12th-century Sanskrit song-poem of the love of Radha and Krishna, sung daily in the Jagannath temple at Puri.

The holy scripture of the Sikhs, revered as the eternal living Guru. It contains the hymns of six Sikh Gurus and of Hindu and Muslim saints.

Reports of the sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad, which, with the Quran, guide Islamic law and practice.

A short Upanishad of 18 verses that opens "Isha vasyam idam sarvam": all this is pervaded by the Lord.

The canonical texts of Jainism, based on the teachings of Mahavira as compiled by his chief disciples (ganadharas).

Sant Dnyaneshwar's Marathi commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, which brought the Gita's wisdom to ordinary people in their own language.

A Svetambara Jain text with the lives of the Tirthankaras, read aloud during Paryushana. Its illustrated manuscripts are treasures of Indian painting.

Kambar's great Tamil retelling of the Ramayana, called Ramavataram, a high point of Tamil poetry.

The dialogue between the boy Nachiketa and Yama, the god of death, on what happens after death and how to know the eternal self.

Named after its first word, "Kena" (by whom?), it asks what power makes the mind think, the eye see and the ear hear.

Srimanta Sankardeva's collection of devotional songs in Assamese, the central text of the Ekasarana Dharma, recited in namghars across Assam.

The "Most Holy Book" of the Bahá'í Faith, written by Bahá'u'lláh, setting out its laws and institutions.

Krittibas Ojha's Bengali retelling of the Ramayana, beloved in Bengal and recited in homes for centuries.

A Purana told by Vishnu in his tortoise avatar, Kurma. It contains the Ishvara Gita, a philosophical dialogue of Shiva.

A Shaiva Purana on the worship of Shiva as the linga, including the story of the infinite pillar of light.

The great epic of the Kuru dynasty and the war between the Pandavas and Kauravas, traditionally said to have about 100,000 verses, one of the longest poems ever composed.

The Sanskrit Mahayana texts and the great Tibetan collections, Kangyur and Tengyur, many translated from works of Indian masters of Nalanda and Vikramashila. They are followed in Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.

The shortest principal Upanishad, just 12 verses, explaining the syllable Om and the four states of consciousness.

An influential ancient law-book in verse attributed to Manu. It was widely cited in the past, and some of its rules on caste and women have been strongly criticised in modern India.

A Purana named after the sage Markandeya. It contains the Devi Mahatmya (Durga Saptashati), the central text of Goddess worship, recited during Navratri.

A Purana told by Vishnu as the fish (Matsya) who saved Manu from the great flood, with chapters on temple and image making.

The source of India's national motto, "Satyameva Jayate" (truth alone triumphs). It distinguishes higher and lower knowledge.

The "four thousand sacred verses" of the twelve Alvar saints in praise of Vishnu, honoured by Sri Vaishnavas as the Tamil Veda.

A Vaishnava Purana in the form of dialogues involving the sage Narada, on devotion, vows and holy places, with summaries of all 18 Puranas.

The ancient treatise on drama, dance and music attributed to Bharata Muni. Its theory of rasa is the basis of Indian classical performing arts.

A large Vaishnava Purana named after the lotus (padma) from which Brahma was born, with sections on creation, pilgrimage and devotion.

Sekkizhar's verse lives of the 63 Nayanars, the Shaiva saints of Tamil Nadu, who came from every walk of life.

Six students put six questions (prashna) to the sage Pippalada, on creation, life-breath (prana), sleep and the syllable Om.

The holy book of Islam, which Muslims believe is the word of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. It is recited in Arabic and read in Indian translations.

The epic of Rama, prince of Ayodhya, his exile, the abduction of Sita by Ravana and her rescue. Valmiki is honoured as the adi kavi, the first poet.

Goswami Tulsidas's retelling of the Ramayana in Awadhi, the most widely read devotional book of North India.

The oldest of the four Vedas: a collection of hymns to deities such as Agni, Indra and Varuna, and one of the oldest surviving texts in any Indo-European language.

The Veda of melodies. Most of its verses come from the Rigveda and are set to chants (samans) sung during Vedic rituals.

Each Veda has layers: the Samhita (hymns), the Brahmanas (ritual explanation), the Aranyakas ("forest texts") and the Upanishads (philosophy).

A Shaiva Purana on the glory of Shiva, his marriage to Parvati, the birth of Ganesha and Kartikeya, and the twelve Jyotirlingas.

A devotional Upanishad that sees the one reality as a personal God, Rudra-Shiva, and contains early teachings on yoga.

The largest Purana, named after Skanda (Kartikeya). It is a vast guide to India's holy places, from Kashi and Ujjain to Puri and Rameswaram.

The "ocean" of songs by the poet-saint Surdas, celebrating the childhood and youth of Krishna in Braj Bhasha.

Known for its teaching to students on finishing their studies ("Satyam vada, dharmam chara") and for the five sheaths (koshas) of the self.

The scripture of Judaism, read and studied by India's Jewish communities: the Cochin Jews of Kerala, the Bene Israel of Maharashtra and the Baghdadi Jews.

A large body of Shaiva, Shakta, Buddhist and other texts on ritual, mantra, yoga and meditation. They shaped temple worship, Goddess traditions and the philosophy of Kashmir Shaivism.

The first Jain text in Sanskrit to set out the whole of Jain philosophy in concise sutras, accepted by both the Digambara and Svetambara traditions.

Hymns to Shiva by the three great Nayanar saints, Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar, sung in Tamil Shiva temples to this day.

The holy book of Christians. India has a long history of Bible translation, beginning with Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg's Tamil New Testament in 1714.

The Puranas ("ancient stories") retell creation, the genealogies of gods, sages and kings, and the avatars of Vishnu, Shiva and the Goddess. Tradition counts 18 major Puranas.

Philosophical texts that conclude the Vedas, exploring the self (atman), ultimate reality (Brahman) and liberation. Tradition counts 108; about a dozen are regarded as the principal (mukhya) Upanishads.

Thiruvalluvar's 1,330 couplets on virtue, wealth and love, among the most translated works of Indian literature and admired across faiths.

Manikkavasagar's deeply personal hymns of love for Shiva, forming the eighth book of the Tirumurai.

The "three baskets" of the Buddha's teaching: monastic rules, discourses and philosophy. The Pali version is the canon of Theravada Buddhism.

The collected abhangas (devotional songs) of Sant Tukaram, sung by Varkari pilgrims on the way to Pandharpur.

Short prose-poems in Kannada by Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu and other 12th-century saints, the scripture of the Lingayat tradition.

A Purana named after Vamana, the dwarf avatar of Vishnu who measured the worlds in three steps, with praise of the Kurukshetra region.

A Vaishnava Purana told by Vishnu in his boar avatar, Varaha, to the Earth goddess, with vows and praise of Mathura.

One of the most systematic Puranas, narrated by the sage Parashara to Maitreya, with the stories of Dhruva and Prahlada and the life of Krishna.

The Veda of ritual formulas, used by the adhvaryu priest who performs the actions of a Vedic sacrifice. It has two branches, Shukla (White) and Krishna (Black).

The classical text of Yoga philosophy: short aphorisms that define yoga as the stilling of the movements of the mind and set out the eight limbs (ashtanga).